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    modern technology of non ferrous metals and metal extraction (hand book)

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      MODERN TECHNOLOGY OF NON FERROUS METALS AND METAL EXTRACTION


      NON-FERROUS METALS AND MATERIALS


      Public Sector
      Private Sector
      Zinc
      Lead
      Copper
      Nickel
      Magnesium
      Gallium

      PROCESSING OF COPPER FROM ITS ORE

      Pyrometallurgy vs. hydro metallurgy

      LEAD AND ZINC RECYCLING

      Zinc recycling
      Lead recycling
      Expansion activities

      CHROMIUM WASTES AND THEIR RECYCLING FOR THE RECLAMATION OF CHROMIUM

      Introduction
      Experimental
      Physical and Chemical Characterization
      Thermogravimetric Study
      Kinetics of Formation of Sodium Chromate
      Acid Leaching Study
      Results and discussion

      ELECTRODEPOSITION OF COBALT FROM COBALT CHLORIDE-N-(BUTYL) PYRIDINIUM CHLORIDE  MOLTEN SALT

      Introduction
      Experimental
      Preparation of CoC12-BPC Molten Salt and Determination of Melting of Melting Point
      Electrochemical Cell and Electrodes
      Electrochemical Cell and Instrumentation
      Deposit Characterization
      Results and discussion
      Voltammetry of CoCl2 BPC
      The Charge Transfer Mechanism of Co(1) ion Reduction
      Electrodeposition of Cobalt

      PYROHYDROLYSIS


       Beginning
      Pyrohydrolysis engineering Feature
      Atomization
      Control parameters
      Application
      Solid and Hollow Spherical Particles
      Ultra fine and Nano particle Synthesis
      Single Phase Multicomponent Oxide Particle Synthesis
      Non oxide of Metal Particle Synthesis
      Composite Powder Synthesis
      Fibre Synthesis
      Thin films

      PROCESSING OF LOW GRADE TUNGSTEN ORE

      Introduction
      Experimental
      Results and discussion
      Gravity cum magnetic Separation
      Magnetic Separation followed by Gravity Separation
      Concentration by a Combination of Magnetic Froth Flotation and Gravity Separation
      Dry High Intensity Magnetic Separation followed by Gravity Concentration
      Extraction of Tungsten from Concentrate
      Process Flow sheet

      EXTRACTION OF COPPER, NICKEL AND COBALT

      Introduction
      Experimental
      Results and discussion

      EXTRACTION OF NICKEL AND OTHER VALUABLE  METALS

      Introduction
      Selection of Process
      Direct leaching/hydrometallurgical processes
      Deep Sea Ventures
      Metallurgie Hoboken overpelt (MHO) Process
      Pyro hydrometallurgical processes
      INCO process
      Metal Mining Agency of Japan (MMAI)
      Reduction and Smelting
      Oxidation
      Sulphidising and Converting
      Manganese Recovery
      Processing of Matte for the Recovery of Nickel, Cobalt and Copper
      Chlorine Leaching
      Solvent Extraction
      Electrowinning
      Process Development Pursued in India
      Reduction roasting Ammonia Leading process
      Reduction Roasting
      Ammonia ammonium Carbonate Leaching
      Solvent Extraction and Electrowinning
      Ammonia Stripping and Cobalt  Recovery

      PRODUCTION OF URANIUM METAL

      Brief Details
      Theoretical formulation
      The Process
      Parametric evaluation
      The Green Salt
      Magnesium Quality
      Lining Quality
      Furnace Temperature

      ALUMINA-ALUMINIUM PROCESSING

      Process technology
      Alumina Refinery
      Aluminium Smelter
      Present  process technology scenario
      Alumina Refinery
      Aluminium Smelter
      Future Scenario of Aluminium Industry

      HIGH TEMPERATURE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

      Introduction
      AI-Li and Al-Min Alloys
      Rapid solidification of Al alloys
      Al-Fe-Ce alloys
      Al-Ti alloys
      Al-Fe-V-SI Alloys
      Mechanical alloying
      Cast Al-Fe-V-Si alloys

      ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION PROCESS

      Introduction
      Process outline
      Anodes
      Alumina Feeding
      Electrolyte
      Energy consumption
      Shell Structure
      Metal Evacuation
      Management of pot operation during
      anthracite to semi-graphite cathode conversion
      Selection of Blocks
      Selection of Parameter
      Alumina Feeding
      Thermal Equilibrium
      Anode Meal Distance (AMD)
      Percentage of Excess ALF3
      Power Input in the Pot and Heal Exchange with the Exterior

      REFRACTORIES

      Introduction
      Refractories for aluminium production
      General Trends in Aluminium Industry
      Pot Lining
      Carbon Baking Furnace
      Characteristics of Refractory in Carbon Baking Furnace
      Trends in Anode Baking Refractories
      Cast House Refractories for Primary and Secondary Aluminium Production
      Melting furnace
      Metal Contact Area i.e. Hearth, Ramp, Lower Side Wall and Trough
      General Requirements of Aluminium Furnace Refractories
      Non-metal Contact Area Roof  and Upper Side Wall
      Holding  furnace
      Metal contact Area
      Non metal contact area
      future trends in Refractories for Aluminium Industries

      ALUMINIUM BASED COMPOSITES

      Introduction
      PM route
      Liquid Phase Route
      Infiltration Technique
      Pressureless Infiltration Techniques
      Pressure Infiltration Techniques
      Vacuum Infiltration
      Reactive Infiltration
      Injection Technique
      Mixing Technique
      In-situ Growth
      Spray Forming

      DRAWING OF COPPER AND ALUMINIUM CONDUCTOR

      Introduction
      Raw material and its specification
      Copper Redraw Rod
      Aluminium  Redraw Rod
      Wire Drawing
      Drawing Copper Wire
      Drawing of Aluminium Wire
      Problem in wire drawing

      PROCESS FOR THE ENRICHMENT OF  NICKEL

      Introduction
      Experimental
      Results and Discussion
      Process for Nickel Enrichment
      Optimisation of Leaching Parameters
      Neutralization of the Leach Liquor
      Calcination of the Hydroxides
      Final Product
      Merits and strengths of the present process

      NON-FERROUS EXTRACTION

      Introduction
      Leaching bacteria
      Microbiology of Thiobacillus ferroxidans
      Mechanisms of bacterial leaching
      Direct Mechanism
      Indirect Mechanism
      Galvanic Conversion
      Applications of bioleaching
      Bioleaching of Copper
      Bioleaching of Uranium
      An Integrated approach for gold processing
      Bioleaching of complex sulphides and ocean nodules

      MEAL EXTRACTION

      Introduction
      High temperature leaching (HTL) processes
      HTL process for Tungsten-Containing Raw Materials
      HTL Process for Gold Containing Raw Materials

      SILICA

      Introduction
      Silica problem overview of remedial measures
      Control of Polycondensation Reactions of Silicic Acid
      During the Acid leaching
      Coagulation or Flocculation of Silicic Acid
      Purification Processing by Solvent Extrction in Presence of Silica

      EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY OF COPPER

      Introduction
      Mineral benefication
      Smelting
      Converting
      Hydrometallurgy

      PROCESSING OF LEAD ZINC RAW MATERIALS

      Introduction
      Integrated processing concept and developments

      ZIRCONIUM, TITANIUM AND MAGNESIUM EXTRACTION

      Introduction
      Zirconium
      Occurrence and Mineral Resources
      Relevance of Hafnium Separation
      Opening of Zircon
      Direct Chlorination
      Caustic Fusion
      Fusion with K2SIF
      Zr-Hf Separation Pocesses
      MIBK Thiocyanate Process
      TBP Nitric Acid Process
      Amine Sulphate Process
      Molten Salt Distillation
      Fractional  Crystallization
      Sponge Production  Technologies
      The Kroll Process
      Molten salt  Electrolytic Process
      Technology development in India
      R & D and Pilot Plant Trials
      Commercial Scale  Production of Zirconium Sponge
      Zirconium Oxide Plant
      Zirconium Sponge Plant
      Future  Plans
      New Zirconium Oxide Plant
      New Zirconium Sponge Plant
      Export Potential
      Titanium
      Occurrence  and Mineral Resources
      Titanium Sponge Production Technologies
      Hunger's Process
      Kroll Process
      Fused Salt Electrolysis
      Technological improvements in Kroll Process
      World Production of Titanium Sponge
      New Extraction Processes under Study
      Technology Development in India
      Laboratory Pilot Plant Studies
      Titanium Technology Demonstration Plant at DMRL
      Development of 4000 kg/Batch Combined  Process Technology
      Chloride Purification
      Combined Process Equipment
       Future Plans
      Magnesium
      Occurrence and Resources
      Metal Production Technologies
      Pidgeon Process
      Magnatherm Process
      Electrolytic Process
      Magnesium Technology Development in India
      NML Programme
      CECRI Programme
      Cell Development  Technology at DMRL
      30 kA, Modular Type  Monopolar Cell
      Salient  Features
      Multipolar Cell Technology

      EXTRACTION OF TITANIUM

      Introduction
      Production of primary titanium metal
      Kroll Process
      Oxide Reduction Process
      Production of Metal (Powder) by other Chloride Reduction Processes
      Electrolysis  Process
      Hybrid Process
      Processing  of ilmenite and scrap titanium
      Processing of Off Grade and Scrap Titanium

      SPECIAL METALS EXTRACTION

       
      Introduction
      Resources
      Energy and environment
      Products
      Tantalum
      Post reduction Processing
      Rare Earths
      Supercritical fluid extracion
      Processing of metals  and alloys
      Thermodynamics and phase diagrams

      NIOBIUM, TANTALUM, HAFNIUM AND GALLIUM PRODUCTION

      Introduction
      Niobium and tantalum metals
      Separation of Niobium from Tantalum
      Commercial Separation Methods
      Conversion to Intermediate Compounds
      Metal Production
      Niobium
      Tantalum
      Commercial Reduction Methods
      Purification
      Applications
      Applications of Tantaium
      Applications of Niobium
      Hafnium metal
      Separation Method
      Commercial separation routes
      Reduction
      Commercial Reduction Routes
      Applications
      Gallium
      Extraction
      Mercury Amalgamation Process
      Gallate Electrolysis
      Purification
      Filtration
      Pyro vacuum Refining
      Electrolytic Purification (2 stages)
      Anodic Polarisation
      Super Purification of Ga (5N o 7N)
      Applications

      EXTRACTION OF METALS

      Extraction of metals from chloride media
      Extraction of Metal with Mixed Extractants from Mixed Media

      EXTRACTION OF COPPER BY DI-(2-ETHYLHEXYL) DITHIOPHOSPHATE SALTS

      THE PURIFICATION OF ELECTROLYTES FROM COPPER AND IRON

      EXTRACTION OF RARE METALS FROM INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTSS OF LEAD ZINC PRODUCTION


      Extraction of Indium

      EXTRACTION OF CADMIUM

      SOLVENT EXTRACTION IN THE PROCESSING OF LEACH AND WASTE SOLUTIONS


      Ammoniacal leach  solution of sea nodules
      Purification of Nickel and Copper Bleed Solution
      Electrowinning  of  Nickel and Copper in the Close Loop Operation with SX
      Separation and recovery of cobalt and zinc
      Recovery of Nickel from the Ammoniacal leach solution of Lateritic Ore
      Recovery of Copper and Zinc from Sulphate Solution

      RECOVERY OF TUNGSTEN FROM ALKALINE SOLUTION OF WOLFRAMITE CONCENTRATE

      RECOVERY OF CHROMIUM AND GALLIUM

      METALLIC WASTE FROM INDIAN ZINC AND LEAD INDUSTRIES


      Introduction
      Zinc Industries
      Waste  Treatment and Disposal Practices in Zinc Industries
      Newer  Processes
      Lead Industries
      Waste Treatment and Disposal Practices in Lead Industries
      Newer  Processes
      Permissible Limits of the Hazardous metallic constituents

      POLYBDENUM

      Low Grade Molybdenite Concentrate
      Molybdenum Bearing Spent Acid
      Molybdenum Scrap
      Vanadium
      Bayer Sludge

      ZIRCONIUM

      Zircaloy scrap

      RARE EARTHS

      BAUXITE BEFICIATION

      Export Potential
      Characteristics of waste materials

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      Preface
      The term non-ferrous is used to indicate metals other than iron and alloys that do not contain an appreciable amount of iron. These are metals which do not contain any iron. They are not magnetic and are usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous metals.
      Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron. There are two groups of metals; ferrous and non-ferrous. Ferrous metals contain iron, for example carbon steel, stainless steel (both alloys; mixtures of metals) and wrought iron. Non-ferrous metals don’t contain iron, for example aluminium, brass, copper (which can be remembered as ABC) and titanium. You can also get non-ferrous metals as alloys eg, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

      Non-ferrous metals are specified for structural applications requiring reduced weight, higher strength, nonmagnetic properties, higher melting points, or resistance to chemical and atmospheric corrosion. They are also specified for electrical and electronic applications. Non-Ferrous Metals include: Aluminum, Beryllium, Copper, Lead, Magnesium, Nickel, Precious Metals, Refractory Metals, Tin, Titanium, Zinc. Nonferrous metal wastes can be efficiently recycled at small plants only if an optimum processing system is established for each type of waste. Such a system should make use of the latest machines and mechanisms to prepare the charge and other materials for the refining-casting conversion. This approach would make it possible to obtain quality finished products in a costeffective manner. In world practice, quality alloys based on nonferrous metals can be reliably produced only if the charge consists of no more than 50% wastes. Also, those waste products must have already undergone metallurgical processing and been certified for further use.
      Thus, a key prerequisite to implementing a successful recycling system is the sorting of scrap based on its physical, chemical,technological, commercial, and other properties. Further classification of wastes based on size and heat treatments administered to the surface in active gases and salts maximizes the likelihood that these materials will be free of harmful impurities and undesirable elements.
      However, this aspect of recycling is currently the least advanced and least mechanized and entails high labor costs. In practice, a separate flow diagram is used for each group of metals, depending on the physical, physicochemical, and technological properties of the wastes and scrap. Nonferrous-metal wastes and scrap can be divided into four unequal groups:
      • aluminum and its alloys;
      • copper and its alloys;
      • wastes of heavy nonferrous metals;
      • wastes that contain high-melting and rare elements.
      Each of these groups should in turn be divided into subgroups based on purity and elemental composition and then subjected to chemico-thermal treatment in active gases and salts. The metals should afterward be melted to obtain samples for analysis. Metal extraction means the separation of metals in a pure or relatively pure state from the minerals in which they naturally occur.
      The Earth’s crust contains many different rocks. Rocks are a mixture of minerals and from some we can make useful substances. A mineral can be a solid metallic or non-metallic element or a compound found naturally in the Earth’s crust. A metal ore is a mineral or mixture of minerals from which economically viable amounts of metal can be extracted, i.e. its got to have enough of the metal, or one of its compounds, in it to be worth digging out!
      Ores are often oxides, carbonates or sulphides. They are all finite resources so we should use them wisely! In order to extract a metal, the ore or compound of the metal must undergo a process called reduction to free the metal i.e. the positive metal ion gains negative electrons to form the neutral metal atom, or the oxide loses oxygen, to form the free metallic atoms. The chemical that removes the oxygen from an oxide is called the reducing agent i.e. carbon, carbon monoxide or sometimes hydrogen. Generally speaking the method of extraction depends on the metals position in the reactivity series.

      The reactivity series of metals can be presented to include two non-metals, carbon and hydrogen, to help predict which method could be used to extract the metal. Metals above zinc and carbon in the reactivity series cannot
      usually be extracted with carbon or carbon monoxide. They are usually extracted by electrolysis of the purified molten ore or other suitable compound e.g. aluminium from molten aluminium oxide or sodium from molten sodium chloride.
      The ore or compound must be molten or dissolved in a solution in an electrolysis cell to allow free movement of ions (electrical current). Theory given in the appropriate sections. Metals below carbon can be extracted by heating the oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide. The non-metallic elements carbon will displace the less reactive metals in a smelter or blast furnace e.g. iron or zinc and metals lower in the series. Metals below hydrogen will not displace hydrogen from acids. Their oxides are easily reduced to the metal by heating in a stream of hydrogen, though this is an extraction method rarely used in industry. In fact most metal oxides below carbon can be reduced when heated in hydrogen, even if the metal reacts with acid.
      Some metals are so unreactive that they do not readily combine with oxygen in the air or any other element present in the Earth’s crust, and so can be found as the metal itself. For example gold (and sometimes copper and silver) and no chemical separation or extraction is needed. In fact all the metals below hydrogen can be found as the ‘free’ or ‘native’ element.
      Other methods are used in special cases using the displacement rule. A more reactive metal can be used to displace and extract a less reactive metal but these are costly processes since the more reactive metal also has to be produced in the first place! See Titanium or see at the end of the section on copper extraction.
      Historically as technology and science have developed the methods of extraction have improved to the point were all metals can be produced. The reactivity is a measure of the ease of compound formation and stability (i.e. more reactive, more readily formed stable compound, more difficult to reduce to the metal). The least reactive metals such as gold, silver and copper have been used for the past 10000 years because the pure metal was found naturally. Moderately reactive metals like iron and tin havebeen extracted using carbon based smelting for the past 2000- 3000 years. But it is only in the past 200 years that very reactive metals like sodium or aluminium have been extracted by electrolysis.


      The book contains 39 chapters on various aspects on Modern Technology of Non-ferrous Metals and Metal Extraction, i.e. Non-Ferrous Metals and Materials, Processing of Copper from its Ore, Lead and Zinc Recycling,  Chromium Wastes and Their Recycling for the Reclamation of Chromium, Electrodeposition of Cobalt from Cobalt Chloride-N-(N-Butyl) Pyridinium chloride Molten Salt, Pyrohydrolysis, Processing of Low Grade Tungsten Ore, Extraction of Copper, Nickel and Cobalt, Extraction of Nickel and Other Valuable Metals, Production of Uranium Metal, Alumina- Aluminium Processing, High Temperature Aluminium Alloys, Aluminium Production Process, Refractories, Aluminium-based Composites, Drawing of Copper and Aluminium Conductor, Process for the Enrichment of Nickel, Non-ferrous Extraction, Metal Extraction, Silica, Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Processing of Lead-Zinc Raw Materials, Zirconium, Titanium and Magnesium Extraction, Extraction of Titanium, Special Metals Extraction, Niobium, Tantalum, Hafnium and Gallium Production, Extraction of Metals, Extraction of Copper by Di-(2-ethylhexyl) dithiophosphate Salts, The Purification of Electrolytes from Copper and Iron, Extraction of Rare Metals from Industrial Products of Lead-Zinc Production, Extraction of Cadmium, Solvent Extraction in the Processing of Leach and Waste Solutions, Recovery of Tungsten from Alkaline Solution of Wolframite Concentrate, Recovery of Chromium and Gallium, Metallic Waste from Indian Zinc and Lead Industries, Molybdenum, Zirconium, Rare Earths, Bauxite Beneficiation.

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